Biblical Law and the Making of England: Vol. 1 Alfred the Great, John of Salisbury and Stephen Langton
Law makes nations and biblical law determinatively shaped the making of medieval England.
The book begins with the discovery of the tomb of the Prince of Prittlewell, in Essex, in 2003. Dated between 575–605 AD it is the oldest known example of a Christian Anglo-Saxon royal burial. It shows that Christianity had reached high-ranking individuals in Britain even before Pope Gregory the Great’s mission to convert the Anglo-Saxons in 596 AD. Around this time, too, Æthelbert of Kent became the first Anglo-Saxon king to be baptised. This is important because his laws mark the beginning of recorded English legislation. King Alfred the Great incorporates these laws as part of a chain that he claims goes back through Æthelbert to the apostles and from thence to Christ and Moses; ultimately, in fact, to God Himself. Prittlewell is thus a moment in the pre-formation of England when the Bible was already making legislative waves on these shores. As at Prittlewell, we need to take a closer look at our surroundings and, in appreciating the role of biblical law in the formation of England, rediscover the treasure beneath our feet.
The Founding King: King Alfred the Great (849 – 899)
The opening chapter explores King Alfred the Great’s law-code (the domboc or “book of judgements”) and shows how Alfred integrates the Covenant Code (Exodus 21:1-22:16) from Exodus to make one law for a newly-imagined people. Alfred’s groundbreaking translation of biblical law into Old English, which he creatively interprets and merges with native Anglo-Saxon laws, makes biblical law foundational to his kingdom. The prologue to the domboc emphasises law’s divine origins, positioning Alfred as a successor to Moses who seeks to constitute the Anglo-Saxons as a people under God’s law. This makes Alfred’s domboc the ideal starting point for our study of biblical law and the making of England. In his acting thus, the chapter shows the influence upon Alfred of the political theology of Hincmar of Rheims. It also reflects, in part, Bede’s emphasis on the responsibilities of the Anglo-Saxons as God’s chosen people. The chapter explores how Alfred’s overall approach was shaped by historical parallels between the Anglo-Saxons and the Israelites, particularly in their shared experiences of suffering and divine deliverance.
At the same time, the chapter also shows how Alfred’s use of biblical law was highly innovative, especially when compared to Irish and Continental practices. His exclusive focus on the Covenant Code was – and remains – unique. Additionally, unlike his contemporaries, Alfred emphasised biblical law’s foundational role in civilisation and its practical application to ninth-century Wessex. Here, Alfred emphasised justice, mercy and legal continuity. Critically, his translation of the Covenant Code made divine law accessible to the laity, aligning with his broader educational reforms aimed at recovering wisdom and wealth for his people. By framing his people as a covenant community, Alfred also laid the ideological groundwork for the eventual unification of England under his grandson, Æthelstan. Alfred’s integration of biblical law into Anglo-Saxon practice reflects his vision of a Christian kingdom rooted in wisdom, wealth, and divine authority; achievements that continue to shape perceptions of English identity and law.
The Courtier: John of Salisbury (c. 1115 – 1180)
Chapter Two highlights the influence of biblical law on John of Salisbury’s 250,000-word Policraticus. This is an important text in the making of England because it is held to be the first extended work of political theory. Written during a period of political turmoil, including the infamous struggle between Henry II and Thomas Becket, the Policraticus critiques courtly excess, tyranny, and the misuse of power while advocating for justice, virtue, and the rule of law. Recognised for its originality and boldness, John’s work integrated diverse sources, whilst emphasising the importance of prioritising biblical texts.
The chapter demonstrates how John’s political philosophy is deeply rooted in biblical law, particularly the Deuteronomic laws of the king (Deut. 17:14–20). It shows how biblical law serves as the ultimate standard for justice and shaped John’s vision of government and the body politic. It also establishes how the Policraticus uses biblical narratives, including those of Moses, Gideon, and Job to illustrate principles of good rulership, including moderation, equity, and the pursuit of wisdom. In particular, it emphasises that rulers are accountable to God, are subordinate to divine law, and are servants of the people. John’s handling of biblical law also reflects his commitment to moderation and a realistic understanding of human nature in governance whilst also encouraging a balance between faith and reason in political discourse.
Significantly, the chapter explores the biblical dimensions of John’s physiological model of the body politic. This vision of a polycratic society is one that promotes harmony and mutual responsibility, that challenges traditional hierarchies and that encourages the idea that all members of society contribute to the common good. In this way, John’s writing challenges the notion that biblical ideas are merely reflections of their time. John’s biblical vision also fosters a cooperative spirit, suggesting that justice and public welfare depend on the harmonious functioning of all societal parts. John actively applies biblical law to the political landscape of his time, arguing that good rulership requires a balance of wisdom and adherence to divine law. He also critiques existing political realities by focusing on biblical kingship and the characteristics of a just ruler. Famously, he addresses tyranny, defining the tyrant as a ruler who opposes divine law and enslaves the people, drawing on biblical examples.
The chapter evaluates the biblical aspects of John’s controversial support for tyrannicide which, for him, may, on occasions, be a divinely inspired act to restore justice and liberty. For John, tyrants lose their legitimacy when they violate divine law. All of this reflects John’s personal experiences as a courtier and his opposition to King Henry II’s policies. His nuanced critique of court culture and his advocacy for biblical law influenced later political thought, including the development of constitutional monarchy and Magna Carta. In sum, the Policraticus’ use of biblical law remains significant for its integration of biblical ethics, realism, and political pragmatism, offering a timeless exploration of the relationship between law, liberty, and virtue in governance.
The Archbishop: Stephen Langton (c. 1150 – 1228)
Chapter Three traces the relationship between biblical law and Magna Carta; an even more subtle task than previous chapters, since Magna Carta does not directly cite the Bible. Accordingly, this chapter focuses on how Stephen Langton and the biblical exegetes of the Paris schools helped to provide intellectual resources for radical constitutional reform. As Archbishop of Canterbury, Langton was the chief negotiator of Magna Carta between King John and the rebel barons. He also played a central part in the definitive redraft of Magna Carta in 1225, this being the version that was subsequently confirmed over 50 times by English kings. Magna Carta is thus an exciting moment in the story of biblical law and the making of England. Langton’s position as a key figure in the history of Magna Carta provides a rare opportunity to see how biblical law shaped one man’s intellectual convictions and how these, in turn, were put into practice during one of the most turbulent times in English political history.
Drawing on the work of specialists on the twelfth-century Parisian schools, the chapter explores how Langton, like his peers, relied on Deuteronomy, and other biblical texts, in developing his ideas about kingship as a form of government and its relationship to legal and episcopal authorities. The chapter focuses on excerpts from Langton’s commentaries that address kingship, law and royal fiscality, looking especially at Deut. 17:14; 17:17; 17:18-20; 1 Samuel 8:9 and 2 Chronicles 34. These show that, for Langton as with other Paris exegetes, the Bible sets out the true limits of kingship.
Additionally, the chapter considers whether Langton’s intellectual convictions concerning biblical law were consistent with his recorded political actions. In doing so, the chapter shows that Langton’s biblical beliefs were indeed reflected in his subsequent realpolitik. This includes such questions as the subordination of the king to God; the legitimacy of the Crown; the need for written law; the need to restrain the powers of the king; the recovery of prior law and the subordination of the king to the priesthood. In these ways, Langton’s career as a theologian and biblical commentator can be shown to merge into his subsequent career as a politician and law-maker in ways that had lasting impact.
In sum, the chapter shows how biblical law played its part in the making of England in the most striking way possible, by shaping the political thought of those called to high office and who acted in fidelity to this, at a critical junction in national life. It is thus another way in which the thread of the Torah is spun through the web of English, and world, history.